Motion Picture Association of America
The Motion Picture Association of America(MPAA) is an American trade associationrepresenting the six major film studios of Hollywood. Founded in 1922 as the Motion Picture Producers and Distributors of America (MPPDA), its original goal was to ensure the viability of the American film industry. In addition, the MPAA established guidelines for film content which resulted in the creation of the Production Code in 1930. This code, also known as the Hays Code, was replaced by a voluntary film rating system in 1968, which is managed by the Classification and Rating Administration (CARA). More recently, the MPAA has advocated for the motion picture and television industry, with the goals of promoting effective copyright protection, reducing piracy, and expanding market access. It has long worked to curb copyright infringement, including recent attempts to limit the sharing of copyrightedworks via peer-to-peer file-sharing networks and by streaming from pirate sites. Former United States Ambassador to France Charles Rivkin is the current chairman and CEO of the MPAA. History Foundation and early history: 1922–29 The MPAA was founded as the Motion Picture Producers and Distributors of America (MPPDA) in 1922 as a trade association of member motion picture companies. At its founding, MPPDA member companies produced approximately 70 to 80 percent of the films made in the United States.1 Former Postmaster General Will H. Hays was named the association's first president.2 The main focus of the MPPDA in its early years was on producing a strong public relations campaign to ensure that Hollywood remained financially stable and able to attract investment from Wall Street, while simultaneously ensuring that American films had a "clean moral tone".13 The MPPDA also instituted a code of conduct for Hollywood's actors in an attempt to govern their behavior offscreen. Finally, the code sought to protect American film interests abroad by encouraging film studios to avoid racist portrayals of foreigners.24 From the early days of the association, Hays spoke out against public censorship,45 and the MPPDA worked to raise support from the general public for the film industry's efforts against such censorship.6 Large portions of the public opposed censorship, but also decried the lack of morals in movies.7 At the time of the MPPDA's founding, there was no national censorship, but some state and municipal laws required movies to be censored, a process usually oveseen by a local censorship board.7 Thus, in certain locations in the U.S., films were often edited to comply with local laws regarding the onscreen portrayal of violence and sexuality, among other topics. This resulted in negative publicity for the studios and decreasing numbers of theater goers, who were uninterested in films that were sometimes so severely edited that they were incoherent.2 In 1929, more than 50 percent of American moviegoers lived in a location overseen by such a board.7 In 1924, Hays instituted "The Formula", a loose set of guidelines for filmmakers, in an effort to get the movie industry to self-regulate the issues that the censorship boards had been created to address. "The Formula" requested that studios send synopses of films being considered to the MPPDA for review. This effort largely failed, however, as studios were under no obligation to send their scripts to Hays's office, nor to follow his recommendations.7 In 1927, Hays oversaw the creation of a code of "Don'ts and Be Carefuls" for the industry.7 This list outlined the issues that movies could encounter in different localities. Hays also created a Studio Relations Department (SRD) with staff available to the studios for script reviews and advice regarding potential problems. Again, despite Hays' efforts, studios largely ignored the "Don'ts and Be Carefuls," and by the end of 1929, the MPPDA received only about 20 percent of Hollywood scripts prior to production,2 and the number of regional and local censorship boards continued to increase.7 Production Code: 1930–34 In 1930, the MPPDA introduced the Production Code, sometimes called the "Hays Code". The Code consisted of moral guidelines regarding what was acceptable to include in films.8Unlike the "Dont's and Be Carefuls", which the studios had ignored, the Production Code was endorsed by studio executives.2 The Code incorporated many of the "Don'ts and Be Carefuls" as specific examples of what could not be portrayed. Among other rules, the code prohibited inclusion of "scenes of passion" unless they were essential to a film's plot; "pointed profanity" in either word or action; "sex perversion"; justification or explicit coverage of adultery; sympathetic treatment of crime or criminals; dancing with "indecent" moves; and white slavery.9 Because studio executives had been involved in the decision to adopt the code, MPPDA-member studios were more willing to submit scripts for consideration. However, the growing economic impacts of the Great Depression of the early 1930s increased pressure on studios to make films that would draw the largest possible audiences, even if it meant taking their chances with local censorship boards by disobeying the Code.2 In 1933 and 1934 the Catholic Legion of Decency, along with a number of Protestant and women's groups, launched plans to boycott films that they deemed immoral.10 In order to avert boycotts which might further harm the profitability of the film industry, the MPPDA created a new department, the Production Code Administration (PCA), with Joseph Breen as its head. Unlike previous attempts at self-censorship, PCA decisions were binding—no film could be exhibited in an American theater without a stamp of approval from the PCA,7 and any producer attempting to do so faced a fine of $25,000.2 After ten years of unsuccessful voluntary codes and expanding local censorship boards, the studio approved and agreed to enforce the codes, and the nationwide "Production Code" was enforced starting on July 1, 1934.7 War years: 1935–45 In the years that immediately followed the adoption of the Code, Breen often sent films back to Hollywood for additional edits, and in some cases, simply refused to issue PCA approval for a film to be shown.211 At the same time, Hays promoted the industry's new focus on wholesome films12 and continued promoting American films abroad.13 For nearly three years, studios complied with the Code. By 1938, however, as the threat of war in Europe loomed, movie producers began to worry about the possibility of decreased profits abroad. This led to a decreased investment in following the strictures of the code, and occasional refusals to comply with PCA demands.2 That same year, responding to trends in European films in the run-up to the war, Hays spoke out against using movies as a vehicle for propaganda.14 In 1945, after 24 years as president, Hays stepped down from his position at the MPPDA, although he continued to act as an advisor for the Association for the next five years.15 Johnston era: 1945–63 In 1945 the MPPDA hired Eric Johnston, four-time president of the United States Chamber of Commerce, to replace Hays.16 During his first year as president, Johnston rebranded the Motion Picture Producers and Distributors of America as the Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA).2 He also created the Motion Picture Export Association (MPEA) to promote American films abroad by opposing production company monopolies in other countries.1718 In 1947 the MPEA voted to discontinue film shipments to Britain after the British government imposed an import tax on American films.19 Johnston negotiated with the British government to end the tax in 1948, and film shipments resumed.20 In 1956, Johnston oversaw the first major revision of the Production Code since it was created in 1930. This revision allowed the treatment of some subjects which had previously been forbidden, including abortion and the use of narcotics, so long as they were "within the limits of good taste". At the same time, the revisions added a number of new restrictions to the code, including outlawing the depiction of blasphemy and mercy killings in films.21 Johnston was well-liked by studio executives, and his political connections helped him function as an effective liaison between Hollywood and Washington.22 In 1963, while still serving as president of the MPAA, Johnston died of a stroke.23 For three years, the MPAA operated without a president while studio executives searched for a replacement.24 Valenti era: 1966–2004 Jack Valenti was the president of Motion Picture Association of America for 38 years. The MPAA hired Jack Valenti, former aide to President Lyndon Johnson, as president of the MPAA in 1966.25 In 1968, Valenti replaced the Production Code with a system of voluntary film ratings, in order to limit censorship of Hollywood films and provide parents with information about the appropriateness of films for children.26 In addition to concerns about protecting children,27 Valenti stated in his autobiography that he sought to ensure that American filmmakers could produce the films they wanted, without the censorship that existed under the Production Code that had been in effect since 1934.26 In 1975 Valenti established the Film Security Office, an anti-piracy division at the MPAA, which sought to recover unauthorized recordings of films to prevent duplication.2528Valenti continued to fight piracy into the 1980s, asking Congress to install chips in VCRs that would prevent illegal reproduction of video cassettes,29 and in the 1990s supported law enforcement efforts to stop bootleg distribution of video tapes.30 Valenti also oversaw a major change in the ratings system that he had helped create—the removal of the "X" rating, which had come to be closely associated with pornography. It was replaced with a new rating, "NC-17", in 1990.3132 In 2001 Valenti established the Digital Strategy Department at the MPAA to specifically address issues surrounding digital film distribution and piracy.2533 Modern era: 2004–present After serving as president of the MPAA for 38 years, Valenti announced that he would step down in 2004.34 In September of that year, he was replaced by former Secretary of AgricultureDan Glickman.25 During his tenure, Glickman focused on tax issues, content protection efforts, and increasing U.S. studios' access to international markets.35 He led lobbying efforts that resulted in $400 million in federal tax incentives for the movie industry, and also supported a law which created federal oversight of anti-piracy efforts.36 Glickman stepped down in 2010.3537 After a search which lasted over a year, the MPAA hired former U.S. Senator Chris Dodd to replace Glickman in March 2011.38 In his role as president, Dodd focused on content protection, trade, and improving Hollywood's image.39 He traveled to China in 2011 in an effort to encourage the Chinese government to both crack down on piracy and further open its film market.40 A settlement of a long-argued World Trade Organization complaint, coupled with Dodd's efforts, contributed to the United States' agreement with China in 2012 to open China's film market to more Hollywood films and to increase U.S. studios' share of box office revenues in China.41 In addition to this agreement with China, the U.S. signed more than 20 memos of understanding with foreign governments regarding the enforcement of intellectual property rights during Dodd's tenure at the MPAA.42 In 2011, the MPAA supported the passage of the Stop Online Piracy Act (SOPA) and PROTECT IP Act (PIPA).43 After the two bills were shelved in early 2012, Dodd indicated that Hollywood might cut off campaign contributions to politicians who failed to support anti-piracy efforts in the future.44 In 2012, the MPAA launched the Diversity and Multicultural Outreach program, as part of an effort to increase diversity in the television and film industry both through employment and representation on screen.45 Since its inception, the Diversity and Multicultural and Outreach group has conducted outreach and partnered with more than 20 multicultural groups and national civil rights organizations in sponsoring film screenings, festivals, and other diversity-themed events.46 Throughout his tenure at the MPAA, Dodd also highlighted the need for movie studios to embrace technology as a means of distributing content.47 In June 2017, the MPAA supported the launch of the Alliance for Creativity and Entertainment (ACE), a coalition of entertainment companies, including the six major studios, Netflix and Amazon, that will draw on the MPAA's resources in an effort to reduce online piracy through research and legal efforts.48 As announced on April 28, 2017, former U.S. Ambassador to France and Assistant Secretary of State for Economic and Business Affairs Charles Rivkin succeeded Chris Dodd as CEO of the Motion Picture Association of America, effective September 5, 2017, and as chairman, effective December 6, 2017.